BELIEF SYSTEMS
Belief systems include both religions and philosophies that help to explain basic questions of human existence, such as "Where did we come from?" Or "What happens after death?" or "What is the nature of human relationships or interactions?" Many major beliefs systems that influence the modern world began during the Foundations Era (8000 BCE to 600 CE).
POLYTHEISM
The earliest form of religion was probably polydaemonism (the belief in many spirits), but somewhere in the Neolithic era people began to put these spirits together to form gods. In polytheism, each god typically has responsibility for one area of life, like war, the sea, or death. In early agricultural societies, quite logically most of the gods had responsibility for the raising of crops and domesticated animals. The most prominent god in many early societies was the Sun God, who took many forms and went by many names. Other gods supervised rain, wind, the moon, or stars. Many societies worshipped gods of fertility, as reflected in statues of pregnant goddesses, or women with exaggerated female features. Young male gods often had features or bulls, goats, or jaguars that represented power, energy, and/or virility. Perceptions of the gods varied from one civilization to the next, with some seeing them as fierce and full of retribution, and others seeing them as more tolerant of human foibles.
Religion was extremely important to the river-valley civilizations, and most
areas of life revolved around pleasing the gods. Monotheism was first
introduced about 2000 BCE by Israelites, but monotheism did not grow
substantially till much later. Each of the classical civilizations had very
different belief systems that partially account for the very different
directions that the three areas took in succeeding eras.
HINDUISM
The beginnings of Hinduism are difficult to trace, but the religion
originated with the polytheism that the Aryans brought as they began invading
the Indian subcontinent sometime after 2000 BCE. Aryan priest recited hymns
that told stories and taught values and were eventually written down in The
Vedas, the sacred texts of Hinduism. One famous story is The Ramayana that
tells about the life and love of Prince Rama and his
wife Sita. Another epic story is The Mahabharata, which focuses on a war between cousins. Its
most famous part is called The Baghavad Gita, which tells how one cousin, Arjuna,
overcomes his hesitations to fight his own kin. The stories embody important
Hindu values that still guide modern day
Hinduism assumes the eternal existence of a universal spirit that guides all life on earth. A piece of the spirit called the atman is trapped inside humans and other living creatures. The most important desire of the atman is to be reunited with the universal spirit, and every aspect of an individual's life is governed by it. When someone dies, their atman may be reunited, but most usually is reborn in a new body. A person's caste membership is a clear indication of how close he or she is to the desired reunion. Some basic tenets of Hinduism are
The universal spirit is represented by Brahman, a god that takes many different shapes. Two of Brahman's forms are Vishnu the Creator, and Shiva the Destroyer. Hinduism is very difficult to categorize as either polytheistic or monotheistic because of the central belief in the universal spirit. Do each of Brahman's forms represent a different god, or are they all the same? Brahman's forms almost certainly represent different Aryan gods from the religion's early days, but Hinduism eventually unites them all in the belief in Brahman.
BUDDHISM
Buddhism began in
Note that Hinduism supported the continuation of the caste system in
CONFUCIANISM
Three important belief systems (Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism) emerged
in
Confucius contemplated why
Confucianism accepted and endorsed inequality as an important part of an
ordered society. It confirmed the power of the emperor, but held him
responsible for his people, and it reinforced the patriarchal family structure
that was already in place in
DAOISM
The founder of Daoism is believed to have been Laozi, a spiritualist who probably lived in the 4th century BCE. The religion centers on the Dao (sometimes referred to as the "Way" or "Path"), the original force of the cosmos that is an eternal and unchanging principle that governs all the workings of the world. The Dao is passive - not active, good nor bad - but it just is. It cannot be changed, so humans must learn to live with it. According to Daoism, human strivings have brought the world to chaos because they resist the Dao. A chief characteristic is wuwei, or a disengagement from the affairs of the world, including government. The less government, the better. Live simply, in harmony with nature. Daoism encourages introspection, development of inner contentment, and no ambition to change the Dao.
Both Confucianism and Daoism encourage self knowledge and acceptance of the ways things are. However, Confucianism is activist and extroverted, and Daoism is reflective and introspective. The same individual may believe in the importance of both belief systems, unlike many people in western societies who think that a person may only adhere to one belief system or another.
LEGALISM
The third belief system that arose from the Warring States Period is
legalism, and it stands in stark contrast to the other beliefs. It had no
concern with ethics, morality, or propriety, and cared nothing about human
nature, or governing principles of the world. Instead it emphasized the
importance of rule of law, or the imperative for laws to govern, not men.
According to legalism, laws should be administered objectively, and punishments
for offenders should be harsh and swift. Legalism was the philosophy of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor, whose Qin
Dynasty rescued
JUDAISM
As noted earlier, Judaism was the first clearly monotheistic religion. At the heart of the religion was a belief in a Covenant, or agreement, between God and the Jewish people, that God would provide for them as long as they obeyed him. The Ten Commandments set down rules for relationships among human beings, as well as human relationships to God. Because they were specially chosen by God, Jews came to see themselves as separate from others and did not seek to convert others to the religion. As a result, Judaism has remained a relatively small religion. However, its influence on other larger religions, including Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam is vast, and so it remains as a very significant "root religion."
Zoroastrianism is an early monotheistic religion that almost certainly
influenced and was influenced by Judaism, and it is very difficult to know
which one may have emerged first. Both religions thrived in the
CHRISTIANITY
Christianity grew directly out of Judaism, with its founder Jesus of
Nazareth born and raised as a Jew in the area just east of the
Jesus was a prophet and teacher whose followers came to believe that he was the son of God. He advocated a moral code based on love, charity, and humility. His disciples predicted a final judgment day when God would reward the righteous with immortality and condemn sinners to eternal hell. Jesus was arrested and executed by Roman officials because he aroused suspicions among Jewish leaders, and he was seen by many as a dangerous rebel rouser. After his death, his apostles spread the faith. Especially important was Paul, a Jew who was familiar with Greco-Roman culture. He explained Christian principles in ways that Greeks and Romans understood, and he established churches all over the eastern end of the Mediterranean, and even as far away as Rome.
Christianity grew steadily in the
By the end of the classical era, these major belief systems had expanded to many areas of the world, and with the fall of empires in the late classical era, came to be major forces in shaping world history. One major religion - Islam - remained to be established in the 7th century as part of the next great period that extended from 600 to 1450 CE.